Senin, 10 Juni 2013

literary theory makalah

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A.    Background
“Literary theory” is the body of ideas and methods we use in the practical reading of literature. By literary theory we refer not to the meaning of a work of literature but to the theories that reveal what literature can mean. Literary theory is a description of the underlying principles, one might say the tools, by which we attempt to understand literature. All literary interpretation draws on a basis in theory but can serve as a justification for very different kinds of critical activity. It is literary theory that formulates the relationship between author and work; literary theory develops the significance of race, class, and gender for literary study, both from the standpoint of the biography of the author and an analysis of their thematic presence within texts. Literary theory offers varying approaches for understanding the role of historical context in interpretation as well as the relevance of linguistic and unconscious elements of the text. Literary theorists trace the history and evolution of the different genres—narrative, dramatic, lyric—in addition to the more recent emergence of the novel and the short story, while also investigating the importance of formal elements of literary structure. Lastly, literary theory in recent years has sought to explain the degree to which the text is more the product of a culture than an individual author and in turn how those texts help to create the culture.
“Literary theory,” sometimes designated “critical theory,” or “theory,” and now undergoing a transformation into “cultural theory” within the discipline of literary studies, can be understood as the set of concepts and intellectual assumptions on which rests the work of explaining or interpreting literary texts. Literary theory refers to any principles derived from internal analysis of literary texts or from knowledge external to the text that can be applied in multiple interpretive situations. All critical practice regarding literature depends on an underlying structure of ideas in at least two ways: theory provides a rationale for what constitutes the subject matter of criticism—”the literary”—and the specific aims of critical practice—the act of interpretation itself. For example, to speak of the “unity” of Oedipus the King explicitly invokes Aristotle’s theoretical statements on poetics. To argue, as does Chinua Achebe, that Joseph Conrad’s The Heart of Darkness fails to grant full humanity to the Africans it depicts is a perspective informed by a postcolonial literary theory that presupposes a history of exploitation and racism. Critics that explain the climactic drowning of Edna Pontellier in The Awakening as a suicide generally call upon a supporting architecture of feminist and gender theory. The structure of ideas that enables criticism of a literary work may or may not be acknowledged by the critic, and the status of literary theory within the academic discipline of literary studies continues to evolve.
Literary theory and the formal practice of literary interpretation runs a parallel but less well known course with the history of philosophy and is evident in the historical record at least as far back as Plato. The Cratylus contains a Plato’s meditation on the relationship of words and the things to which they refer. Plato’s skepticism about signification, i.e., that words bear no etymological relationship to their meanings but are arbitrarily “imposed,” becomes a central concern in the twentieth century to both “Structuralism” and “Poststructuralism.” However, a persistent belief in “reference,” the notion that words and images refer to an objective reality, has provided epistemological (that is, having to do with theories of knowledge) support for theories of literary representation throughout most of Western history. Until the nineteenth century, Art, in Shakespeare’s phrase, held “a mirror up to nature” and faithfully recorded an objectively real world independent of the observer.
B.     Problem Statements
Based on the background above the writer would like to formulate the problem statement of this study as follows:
ü  Relation between ethnic, post-colonial, and international studies.

















CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
a.      Ethnic, Post-Colonial, and International Studies
In this section the emphasis shifts, however, from gender or sexuality to ethnicity, race and the post-colonial subject. According to Ellis Cashmore in Dictionary of Race and Ethnic Relations, ethnic and ethnicity refer to a group possessing some degree of coherence and solidarity composed of people who are … aware of having common origins and interests. There is some confusion between ethnicity or ethnic group, and race. Whereas race stands for the attributions of one group, ethnic group stands for the collective response of a people who somehow feel marginal to the mainstream of society. The confusion may be clarified in terms of positive and negative group experience: race reflects the positive tendencies of identification and inclusion while ethnicity reflects the negative tendencies of dislocation and exclusion. Stuart Hall has noted a revisioning or splitting of the term ethnicity, between the dominant notion which connects it to nation and ‘race’ anda recognition that we all speak from a particular place, out of a particular history, out of a particular experience, a particular culture … We are all, in this sense, ethnically located. Hall’s linkage of particularity to commonality (“we all speak from a particular place”, etc.) enfolds ethnicities such as Englishness which have traditionally survived “by marginalizing, dispossessing, displacing and forgetting other ethnicities. The totalizing project of Englishness in colonies under British imperial rule, and its questioning by intellectuals and critics of the second half of the 20th century, lie at the heart of what has come to be known as post-colonial criticism. Within a poststructuralist environment and drawing on its methodology, post-colonial critics analyze the repercussions of European cultural and territorial expansion from its beginnings to the present day. They examine the mutually reinforcing enterprise of colonialism and the cultures of the colonizers, as well as the interaction between colonizers and colonized. Post-colonial aims at recovering the marginalized excluded or otherwise silenced voices of colonial or subaltern voices. Finally, post-colonial studies explore and theorize identity as determined by colonial and post-colonial experience, national affiliation and a globalised world.
The field emerged in the second half of the 20th century after WW II, when the colonial enterprise started breaking down and European colonial powers such as France and England granted independence to many of its colonies. Internal colonial situations such as those suffered by African Americans in the United States and the black majority in South Africa faced significant and mounting challenges to racist practices and abuse. Colonial hegemony had been enforced by the imposition of the colonizers’ language and cultures, and attention in the post-colonial studies turned to the role of literature which, as Michael Ryan notes, came to be seen as a privileged site for understanding the social structures, cultural codes, and psychological tropes of cross-cultural and inter-ethnic understanding and misunderstanding. Race and ethnicity interest us for the ways in which they are represented, mediated or otherwise signify through literary texts. Ryan reminds us that culturally constructed racial or ethnic identities bear a specific relationship to literature. Much of the most influential post-colonial criticism has been generated by authors who were born in formerly colonized nations. The Nigerian author and critic Chinua Achebe’s essay An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness is a foundational text of post-colonial criticism. It exposes the racism that lies at the heart of Heart of Darkness, a racism in which Western culture is accomplice given the privileged status of Conrad’s text in Western canon. Palestinian-born American critic Edward Said’s Orientalism is one of the foremost landmarks credited with having laid the groundwork for the field. Interacting with the emerging poststructuralist theory, he was one of Michel Foucault’s most distinguished disciples, drawing on his studies of discourse and power, or discourse as power, to elucidate the function of cultural representations on the construction and maintenance of First / Third World relations. Said takes on the challenge of the post-colonial, to elucidate how knowledge that is non-dominative and non-coercive can be produced in a setting that is deeply inscribed with the politics, the considerations, the positions and the strategies of power (Orientalism Reconsidered). He put into circulation the term the other to describe the enduring stereotypes and thinking about the Orient generated by European imperialism.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak and Homi Bhabha, (Spivak is Bengali, Bhabha is Indian), have driven post-colonial criticism further down the route of imaginative interaction between theory and politics, analytical discourse and the anti-imperialist cause. Said and Spivak explore the structures of imperial domination and their material impact on the lives of the colonized subject construed as the Other or the Subaltern. Bhabha engages with deconstructive practice in order to critique certain violent hierarchies: the West and the Orient, the center and the periphery, the empire and the colonized, the oppressor and the oppressed, and the self and the other. Dismantling these binaries that conceptualize national cultures as stable, fixed and monologic, Bhabha argues that nationalities, ethnicities, and identities are dialogic, indeterminate, and characterized by hybridity. The lexicon he deploys, cross-reference, in-between, Third Space, dialogic, translation, negotiation, hybrid, point to a conceptualization of the subject as fluid, decentered and continually in-the-making.
One of the most influential African-American critics of recent decades, Henry Louis Gates Jr. has produced pioneering work in the field of race studies. Drawing on poststructuralism, he argues for a culturally-specific intertextual literary tradition in which African-American texts talk black to, or signify upon, one another. The dialogic intertextuality of African-American writing is not limited to black-on-black writing but includes black-on-white. The problematics of identity are also explored. Gates views race and identity as linguistically and culturally produced, rather than a matter of essential or pre-constituted qualities.
b. Postcolonial Studies and Race and Ethnicity Studies
Postcolonial studies examines the global impact of European colonialism, from its beginnings in the 15th up to the present. Its aims are: to describe the mechanisms of colonial power, to recover excluded or marginalized subaltern voices, and to theorize the complexities of colonial and postcolonial identity, national belonging, and globalization. One major issue concerns the nature of representation. Following Edward Said’s Orientalism, postcolonial critics have examined the ways in which Western representations of third world countries serve the political interests of their makers. Postcolonial critics problematize “objective” perception, pointing out the unbalanced power relations that typically shape the production of knowledge. The West has constructed the third world as an Other. Such ideological projections typically become the negative terms of binary oppositions in which the positive terms are normative representations of the West. These damaging stereotypes circulate through anthropological, historical, and literary texts, as well as mass media such as newspapers, television, and cinemas. A related line of inquiry in postcolonial theory studies how institutions of Western education function in the spread of imperialism. Historical documents such as Thomas Babington Macaulay’s Minute on Indian Education show that education, including the study of English literature and the English language, plays a strategic part in ruling over colonized peoples. As it inculcates Western Eurocentric values, literary education supports a kind of cultural colonization, creating a class of colonial subjects often burdened by a double consciousness and by divided loyalties. It helps Western colonizers rule by consent rather than by violence.
The nature of this enterprise has led some such as Ngugi wă Thiong’o and others to call for the dismantling of institutions of Western education in the third world. The realization of the extent to which the cultures of colonizers and colonized interact has prompted reflections on the hybrid nature of culture. No culture is ever pure. This is evident in our era of globalised post-industrial capitalism. The nationalism that claims notions of pure culture is questioned by the international flows of commodities, money, information, technology, and workers. These dynamics of globalization, hybridization, and nationalism preoccupy scholars of postcolonial studies. Postcolonial literary criticism focuses on literatures produced by subjects in the context of colonial domination, most notably in Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean. Building on knowledge of the institutions of Western education and the hybrid nature of culture, the analysis of postcolonial literature explores the complex interactions and antagonisms between native, indigenous, pre-colonial cultures and the imperial cultures imposed on them. The concerns of postcolonial literary studies overlap with those of race and ethnicity studies, a broad field that examines a wide array of topics (including literature) related to minority ethnic groups.
In North America these would include African, Asian, Hispanic, and Native peoples, among others. African Americans’ history has included deportation, slavery, oppression, and struggle. Some scholars argue that the black community in the United States has evolved a distinctive and separate way of life, neither Anglo-Saxon nor African. The character of African American arts is communal rather than individualistic, their psychology is repudiative rather than accommodative of racism, and their tradition is oral-musical rather than textual. They possess their own values, styles, customs, themes, techniques, and genres. In the past, mainstream white critics have found the black arts to be grotesque, humorous, variously; sometimes adopting white values and forms, or rejecting them outright, or blending them into a hybrid. Literary critics engaged in race and ethnicity studies analyze the nature and dynamics of minority literatures, focusing on one literature but occasionally examining as well the context of dominant cultures (thereby overlapping with postcolonial studies).
Ethnic, Postcolonial and International Studies (Ryan)
The last half of the 20th century witnessed the end of the colonial domination. Most previously colonized countries achieved independence. Ethnic minorities (Africans in the USA) struggled to end practices of racist mistreatment and to achieve equality with local ethnic majorities. In this geo-political situation, attention turned to the differences in culture and literature between the various ethnic groups around the world, to the way literature engages such issues as inter-ethnic relations, racial identity, homeland, exile, diaspora, nationhood and the like. In severe racial oppression like the USA and South Africa, literature was seen as a privileged site for understanding the social structures, cultural codes and psychological tropes of cross-cultural and inter-ethnic understanding and misunderstanding. While science doubts human spices divides into ethnicities and races, race and ethnicity remain powerful cultural and social categories. And while external traits such as skin colour can express internal ethnic essences or separable genetic identities, they are the visual language of human difference and human community. They are why people band together or fall apart, even if the racial identities they represent have no existence apart from the differences in legible traits. History speaks a different language from science, and to read a work of literature in English by someone of colour is to read something marked by a history of mistreatment, disenfranchisement, and dispossession. Race and ethnicity are not erasable marks, rather effective and compelling determinants of cultural difference and of literary specificity. Literary criticism that takes race and ethnicity as its concern has helped foreground the importance of racial identification in society and question the hitherto unquestioned ethnic norms of racially unmarked literary study. Ethnic criticism displaced the notion that universality spoke a white dialect, and it focused attention on the bleaching out of other non-dominant ethnic experiences by the privilege, always implicit and sometimes explicit, given whiteness in Eurocentric and North American literary study. Two major consequences: recognition of the importance of ignored ethnic experiences and literatures and the reconsideration of the history of white discourse from an interracial perspective. The new ethnic criticism explores ethnic identities whose cultures have been marginalized during the era of white normativity, and by exploring the history of the various ethnicities and of their lives together, it destabilizes the moral self-assurance of white European-descended culture. Ethnic studies obliges the canon (mainly white and male) to review its imbrication with the violent subordination of others. We have to consider questions such as: how might a work have helped foster and maintain negative and harmful racialist attitudes and stereotypes? How might the entire canon be reconsidered with this question in mind? How might the introduction of literature to the canon by or about people of colour mitigate the harmful effects of such cultural imperialism?








CHAPTER III
CLOSSING
A.    CONCLUSSION
“Literary theory” is the body of ideas and methods we use in the practical reading of literature. By literary theory we refer not to the meaning of a work of literature but to the theories that reveal what literature can mean. Literary theory is a description of the underlying principles, one might say the tools, by which we attempt to understand literature. All literary interpretation draws on a basis in theory but can serve as a justification for very different kinds of critical activity. It is literary theory that formulates the relationship between author and work; literary theory develops the significance of race, class, and gender for literary study, both from the standpoint of the biography of the author and an analysis of their thematic presence within texts. Literary theory offers varying approaches for understanding the role of historical context in interpretation as well as the relevance of linguistic and unconscious elements of the text. Literary theorists trace the history and evolution of the different genres—narrative, dramatic, lyric—in addition to the more recent emergence of the novel and the short story, while also investigating the importance of formal elements of literary structure. Lastly, literary theory in recent years has sought to explain the degree to which the text is more the product of a culture than an individual author and in turn how those texts help to create the culture.
B.     SUGGESTION

1.      The writer released that so many mistakes which had been done in this paper so that the writer suggests to the next paper who want to take the some object with my study to more focus to their thesis.
2.      The writer hope to next paper in other to be able to do paper on varian of sociolinguistic that can give contribution to readers.
3.      In writing this paper the writer realized also that this paper is not perfect, there are many weaknesses, so the writer will accept any critic on this paper in other to achieve its completion and for the save of learner who wants to study sociolinguistic.

C.    REFERENCES




poskolonial

Musriadi 1

Musriadi (B.S.I/ Ag.4)

Lecturer Rosmah Tami

Colonial and Pasco-Colonial

June 1, 2013

GAMBARAN IMPERIALISME PADA NOVEL “HEART OF DARKNESS” KARYA JOSEPH CONRAD

ABSTRACT
Novel ini membahas tentang penjajahan di Congo yang digambarkan dalam karya Joseph Conrad “ Heart of Darkness” .Joseph Conrad adalah penulis Inggris kelahiran Polandia.Ia menjadi salah satu penulis sastra yang penting, dan keberadaannya disejajarkan dengan DH Lawrence, Herman Mellville, Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, dan lain-lain. Pada mulanya,ia adalah seorang pelaut -atau pengelana.Ia bekerja pada perusahaan perkapalan Belgia ketika mengumpulkan berbagai pengalaman yang akan ditulisnya dalam Heart of Darkness.Novel ini mengambil setting di Afrika (daerah Kongo) pada masa penjelajahan-kolonialisme Barat di Afrika di abad 19. Marlow sebagai karakter utama pada novel ini menggambarkan kekejaman penjajahan melalui perburuan gading dengan mengusulkan untuk membawa penerangan, tetapi dalam waktu yang sama mereka menjadi manusia yang rakus akan kekayaan yang membuat mereka lupa akan tujuan mereka ke Congo untuk memberikan peradaban kepada masyarakatnya, tetapi yang terjadi, mereka memperlakukan masyarakat di sana tidak lebih seperti binatang.Ketamakan membuat mereka menjadi manusia yang kejam.

Keywords:  Greed of Imperialism, Cruelty of imperialism, Exploitation of land.

PENDAHULUAN

Imperialisme adalah kebijakan memperluas kekuasaan negara dan pengaruh di dunia melalui hubungan politik atau kekuatan militer, dan terutama di masa lalu dengan mengakuisisi koloni.
(Oxford advanced Learner’s dictionary; 595)

Pada abad ke-19, berbagai kekuatan Eropa berebut untuk merebut koloni di Afrika. Untuk mengkritik kebijakan tersebut, imperialisme itu tidak lebih dari upaya brutal untuk mengekstrak kekayaan dan sumber daya tanah Afrika.

Novel Joseph Conrad "Heart of Darkness' adalah salah satu novel yang mengekspos eksploitasi imperialism tanah dan orang-orangnya. Novel ini tentunya memiliki sisi publik penting sebagai bentuk dokumen kemarahan pada eksploitasi yang brutal. Ini menceritakan tentang bagaimana kulit putih memperlakukan orang-orang Afrika, terlepas dari misi mereka untuk membudayakan dan memberikan cahaya untuk penduduk asli.


Musriadi 2

METODOLOGI

Dalam penulisan penelitian ini, ada dua pendekatan utama yang digunakan, pendekatan intrinsik dan ekstrinsik. Hakekatnya setelah membaca novel secara menyeluruh, data yang penting bagi subyek diambil keluar. Kemudian, data diatur ke dalam pekerjaan ini. Ekstrinsik, studi diselesaikan oleh referensi. Referensi ini digunakan untuk mendukung semua ide yang digambarkan dalam penelitian ini.

THESIS STATEMENT
Dalam analisis ini, penulis akan mengkaji imperealisme yang terjadi dalam novel “heart of darkness” yang ditulis oleh Joseph Conrad. Heart of Darkness dapat dianalisis dalam hal fokusnya pada periode sejarah, poskolonialisme, kolonialisme, dan acara budaya pada zaman tersebut. Tema dalam novel ini adalah orang-orang Eropa bepergian ke negara-negara terbelakang, biadab, dan tak beradab ini terlihat dalam teks, yang memiliki lingkup sosial yang lebih luas dan artistik. Novel ‘Heart of Darkness’Karya Conrad ini mengkhususkan untuk menghubungkan antara nilai-nilai Victoria dan cita-cita Modernisme.

SYNOPSIS
Aboard the Nellie, anchored in the River Thames near Gravesend, England, Charles Marlow tells his fellow sailors about the events that led to his appointment as captain of a river-steamboat for an ivory trading company. He describes his passage on ships to the wilderness to the Company's station, which strikes Marlow as a scene of devastation: disorganized, machinery parts here and there, periodic demolition explosions, weakened native black men who have been demoralized, in chains, literally being worked to death, and strolling behind them a white Company man in a uniform carrying a rifle. At this station Marlow meets the Company's chief accountant who tells him of a Mr. Kurtz, and explains that Kurtz is a first-class agent.
Marlow leaves with a caravan to travel on foot some two hundred miles deeper into the wilderness to the Central Station, where the steamboat that he is to captain is based. Marlow is shocked to learn that his steamboat had been wrecked two days before his arrival. The manager explains that they needed to take the steamboat up-river because of rumours that an important station was in jeopardy and that its chief, Mr. Kurtz, was ill. Marlow describes the Company men at this station as lazy back-biting "pilgrims", fraught with envy and jealousy, all trying to gain a higher status within the Company, which in turn, would provide more personal profit; however, they sought these goals in a meaningless, ineffective and lazy manner, mixed with a sense that they were all merely waiting, while trying to stay out of harm's way. After fishing his boat out of the river, Marlow is frustrated by the months spent on repairs. During this time, he learns that Kurtz is far from admired, but is more or less resented (mostly by the manager). Not only is Kurtz's position at the Inner Station a highly envied position, but sentiment seems to be that Kurtz is undeserving of it, as he received the appointment only by his European connections.

Musriadi 3
Once underway, the journey up-river to the Inner Station, Kurtz's station, takes two months to the day. On board are the manager, three or four "pilgrims" and some twenty "cannibals" enlisted as crew.
They come to rest for the night about eight miles below the Inner Station. In the morning they awake to find that they are enveloped by a thick, white fog. From the riverbank they hear a very loud cry, followed by a discordant clamour. A few hours later, as safe navigation becomes increasingly difficult, the steamboat is hit with a barrage of sticks—small arrows—from the wilderness. The pilgrims open fire into the bush with their Winchester rifles. The native serving as helmsman gives up steering to pick up a rifle and fire it. Marlow grabs the wheel to avoid snags in the river. The helmsman is impaled by a spear and falls at Marlow's feet. Marlow sounds the steam whistle repeatedly, causing the shower of arrows to cease. Marlow and a pilgrim watch the helmsman die, and Marlow forces the pilgrim to take the wheel so that he can fling his blood-soaked shoes overboard. Marlow presumes (wrongly) that Kurtz is dead. Marlow notes that the International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs commissioned Kurtz to write a report, which he did eloquently. A footnote in the report, written much later, states "Exterminate all the brutes!" (Later, Kurtz entreats Marlow to take good care of the pamphlet.) Marlow does not believe Kurtz was worth the lives that were lost in trying to find him. After putting on a pair of slippers, Marlow returns to the wheel-house and resumes steering. By this time the manager is there, and expresses a strong desire to turn back. At that moment the Inner Station comes into view.
At Kurtz's station Marlow sees a man on the riverbank waving his arm, urging them to land. Because of his expressions and gestures, and all the colourful patches on his clothing, the man reminds Marlow of a harlequin. The pilgrims, heavily armed, escort the manager to retrieve Mr. Kurtz. The harlequin-like man, who turns out to be a Russian, boards the steamboat. The Russian is a wanderer who happened to stray into Kurtz's camp. Through conversation Marlow discovers just how wanton Kurtz could be, how the natives worshipped him, and how very ill he had been of late. The Russian admires Kurtz for his intellect and his insights into love, life, and justice. The Russian seems to admire Kurtz even for his power—and for his willingness to use it. Marlow suggests that Kurtz has gone mad.
From the steamboat, through a telescope, Marlow can observe the station in detail and is surprised to see near the station house a row of posts topped with decapitated heads of natives. Around the corner of the house, the manager appears with the pilgrims, bearing Kurtz on an improvised stretcher. The area fills with natives, apparently ready for battle. Marlow can see Kurtz shouting on the stretcher. The pilgrims carry Kurtz to the steamer and lay him in one of the cabins. A beautiful native woman walks in measured steps along the shore and stops next to the steamer. She raises her arms above her head and then walks back into the bushes. The Russian informs Marlow that Kurtz had ordered the attack on the steamer. The Russian refers to a canoe waiting for him and notes how delightful it was to hear Kurtz recite poetry. Marlow and the Russian then part ways.
Musriadi 4
After midnight, Marlow discovers that Kurtz has left his cabin on the steamer and returned to shore. Marlow goes ashore and finds a very weak Kurtz making his way back to his station - although not too weak to call to the natives. Marlow appreciates his serious situation, and when Kurtz begins in a threatening tone, Marlow interjects that his "success in Europe is assured in any case"; at this, Kurtz allows Marlow to help him back to the steamer. The next day they prepare for their departure. The natives, including the native woman, once again assemble on shore and begin to shout. Marlow, seeing the pilgrims readying their rifles, sounds the steam whistle repeatedly to scatter the crowd on shore. Only the woman remains unmoved, with outstretched arms. The pilgrims open fire. The current carries them swiftly downstream.
Kurtz's health worsens, and Marlow himself becomes increasingly ill. The steamboat having broken down and being under repair, Kurtz gives Marlow a packet of papers with a photograph. As Kurtz dies, Marlow hears him weakly whisper: “The horror! The horror!”
Marlow blows out the candle and tries to act as though nothing has happened when he joins the other pilgrims, who are eating in the mess-room with the manager. In a short while, the "manager's boy" appears and announces in a scathing tone: "Mistah Kurtz—he dead." Next day Marlow pays little attention to the pilgrims as they bury "something" in a muddy hole. Marlow falls very sick, himself near death.
Upon his return to Europe, Marlow is embittered. He distributes the bundle of papers Kurtz had entrusted to him: Marlow gives the paper entitled "Suppression of Savage Customs" (with the postscriptum torn off) to a clean-shaven man with an official manner. To another man, who claims to be Kurtz's cousin, Marlow gives family letters and memoranda of no importance. To a journalist he gives a Report for publication, if the journalist sees fit. Finally Marlow is left with some personal letters and the photograph of a girl's portrait—Kurtz's fiancée, whom Kurtz referred to as “My Intended”. When Marlow visits her, she is dressed in black and still deep in mourning, although it is more than a year since Kurtz's death. She presses Marlow for information, asking him to repeat Kurtz's final words. Uncomfortable, Marlow lies and tells her that Kurtz's final word was her name.
PEMBAHASAN
Joseph Conrad menulis Heart of Darkness di akhir tahun 1890-an setelah perjalanan ke Kongo pada awal dekade. Masalah sosial utama di Heart of Darkness berkaitan dengan orang Eropa yang meninggalkan moral ketika dihadapkan dengan kekuatan kolonialisme. Dua karakter utama, Kurtz dan Marlow, kedua bangsawan ini menghadapi tantangan ini. Dengan demikian, tema utama dalam novella dapat didefinisikan sebagai praktek-praktek kemunafikan imperealisme yang bukan kepalang, dengan motif seperti understatements yang ironis, horribleness, dan, tentu saja, kegelapan.

Musriadi 5
Tidak ada kata yang dijelaskan Conrad di Heart of Darkness lebih baik daripada kata pertentangan. Sementara Marlow ketakutan oleh kekerasan kehidupan imperialis di Kongo, dia mengatakan bahwa setiap orang yang memberi ide, bekerja untuk perusahaan. Seiring dengan hal itu, reaksi degenerasi Marlows dan Kurtzs adalah ketakutan. Apa yang dulu tampaknya seperti kesempatan pekerjaan yang legit yang ironisnya ternyata meremehkan, bahkan sudut pandang yang benar-benar akurat atas bibinya yang mendaftarkannya pekerjaan pada perusahaan. Kata-kata tidak bisa menggambarkan apa yang telah dialami Marlow.

Gaya penemuan Conrads terhadap Marlows mengindikasikan kegelapan. Dia menyampaikan masalah korupsi di tanah kolonial melalui simbol-simbol, seperti: kabut, kegelapan, sungai, kepala dipenggal, kebobolan melalui tiang pagar, dan penyalahgunaan perempuan. Ketiga digunakan untuk pratanda yang berakhir tidak menyenangkan, dan digunakan di seluruh novel. Dua yang terakhir lebih khususnya menyoroti peristiwa-peristiwa yang tidak menyenangkan yang membuka perjalanan Marlows dan memperhatikan perlakuan brutal terhadap budaknya, dan hubungan Kurtzs dengan gundiknya.

Menggunakan diksi bervariasi, sebagai cara Conrad membedakan karakter. Eropa berbicara dengan makna, orang-orang akan jalan-jalan biasa (ex, itu wajar, dan tidak orang-orang, mereka tidak tidak manusiawi. Yah, kau tahu, itu adalah kecurigaan terburuk mereka yang tidak manusiawi). Afrika berbicara dalam ungkapan sederhana, dan terdengar tidak berpendidikan (ex, Mistah Kurtz, ia mati satu sen untuk pria tua). Ini menambahkan unsur realisme Heart of Darkness, sehingga mendukung masalah sosial yang dibahas dalam novel. Citra Conrads besar atas Marlows dengan narasi yang secara akurat dengan pratanda gelap. Peristiwa mengancam yang akan segera membuka gulungan.

Imperialisme tetap menjadi pusat di "Heart of Darkness" pada 1890-an, sebagian besar "tempat gelap" didunia telah ditempatkan di bawah kontrol Eropa, dan negara-negara besar Eropa yang membentang tipis, berusaha untuk mengelola dan melindungi kerajaan besar yang berjauhan. Retakan mulai muncul dalam sistem, kerusuhan, perang, dan ditinggalkannya grosir perusahaan komersial semua mengancam orang kulit putih yang tinggal di sudut jauh dari kerajaan. Heart of Darkness menunjukkan bahwa ini adalah hasil alami ketika orang-orang yang diizinkan untuk beroperasi di luar sistem sosial checks and balances: kekuasaan, terutama kekuasaan atas manusia lainnya, pasti merusak. Pada saat yang sama, hal ini menimbulkan pertanyaan apakah mungkin untuk memanggil seseorang gila atau salah ketika ia adalah bagian dari sebuah sistem yang begitu benar-benar merusak. "Heart of Darkness", dengan demikian, pada tingkat yang paling abstrak, adalah sebuah narasi tentang kesulitan memahami kata di luar diri, tentang kemampuan satu orang untuk menghakimi orang lain.

Keserakahan dan kekejaman imperialisme digambarkan dalam Joseph Conrad "Heart of Darkness" pada dasarnya muncul dari kelas pemburu gading, sedangkan Kurtz, dibagian primitif dari benua yang gelap.

Musriadi 6

a.      Keserakahan Imperialisme

Keserakahan untuk kekayaan adalah akar segala kejahatan. Tindakan Rakyat sangat dipengaruhi oleh kekayaan. Ini adalah sama dengan karakter dalam "Heart of Darkness", Kurtz, dan pemburu gading lainnya, yang percaya bahwa uang adalah segalanya. Mereka dipengaruhi oleh kekuatan uang. Oleh karena itu, mereka mencoba untuk mendapatkan uang sebanyak mungkin dengan cara apapun. Mereka dapat melakukan apapun untuk keinginan mereka, bahkan mereka harus membunuh orang lain dan mereka akan melakukannya. Dengan kata lain, mereka mendapatkan uang baik jujur ​​atau tidak jujur.

Kurtz adalah seorang idealis yang mengusulkan untuk membawa pencerahan, peradaban, dan kemajuan ke benua Afrika, tapi pada saat yang sama, karena menjadi mengerikan, Kurtz didorong oleh hal yang sama "kerakusan yang bodoh", yang membuat dia sinis, lapar untuk kekayaan dan kekuasaan yang dapat membawa ia keluar dari Kongo dan orang-orangnya. Kurtz sendiri mengakui pembauran dua motif ketika ia menulis:

“Each station should be like a beacon on the road towards better things, a centeror trade of course, but also for humanizing, improving, instructing.” (Conrad, 2002: p.53)

Sejak awal, Kurtz melihatnya sebagai misinya baik untuk menyelamatkan orang-orang Kongo dan untuk menghibur toko besar kerja gading mereka.

     Narator Conrad, Marlow, lebih jelas terlihat daripada Kurtz dalam pemahaman tentang sifat sejati dari imperialisme. Mengingat bagaimana bibinya itu "dibawa kakinya" dengan efusi tentang misi pembudayaan imperialis Eropa di Afrika. Dalam novel, Conrad berkomentar bahwa ia memberanikan diri untuk menekan bahwa perusahaan itu dijalankan demi keuntungan. Pada awal novel Marlow bahkan lebih tajam menyatakan bahwa imperialisme adalah:

“just robbery with violence, aggravated murder on a great scale, and men going at ity blind as is every proper for those who tackle a darkness. The conquest of the earth, which mostly means the taking it away from those who have a different complexion or slightly flatter noses than ourselves, is not a pretty thing when you look into it too much. What redeems it is the idea only.” ( Conrad, 2002: p.19 )

Cara di mana imperialis memperlakukan Afrika lebih seperti budak ketimbang orang. Novel "Heart of Darkness" menjelaskan banyak kasus yang menunjukkan keserakahan dan keegoisan imperialisme.

Setiap kepala diberi wewenang untuk mengumpulkan pajak. Individu harus bekerja untuk jangka waktu tertentu untuk pembayaran minimum. Ini, tentu saja, adalah nama lain dari perbudakan. Yang disebut wajib pajak diperlakukan seperti tahanan, pekerjaan
Musriadi 7

dilakukan di bawah pengawasan tangan penjaga, dan, sebagaimana dapat dengan mudah dibayangkan, sistem meminjamkan sendiri untuk semua jenis kebrutalan. Semangat kepahitan dan kebencian dihasilkan pada orang-orang itu cukup menakutkan, tapi sedikit yang bisa dilakukan tentang hal itu seperti pohon itu tidak cukup kontrol di daerah untuk mencegah berbagai agen dari penyalahgunakan kekuasaan mereka.

Hal ini dapat disimpulkan bahwa kulit putih telah menerapkan praktek-praktek tidak bermoral, dan disalahgunakan kekuasaan mereka melawan Afrika. Hal ini juga memberikan wawasan tentang kengerian imperialisme yang terjadi pada waktu itu. Selain itu, ini menunjukkan bahwa kulit putih bisa melakukan apa pun termasuk mengambil alih orang dan menggunakan mereka sebagai 'budak' untuk keuntungan pribadi mereka sendiri. Hasil kegilaan ini dan keserakahan dapat menjadi yang terbaik ditunjukkan melalui penggunaan Conrad pada hidup dan citra. Tanah Afrika digambarkan melalui keluar buku sebagai sesuatu yang hidup, dan Kongo dibawa untuk hidup sebagai ular. Bukit-bukit juga digambarkan sebagai 'takut' dari sumber daya yang diambil dari mereka. Pohon-pohon dan tanah di Afrika yang terus bergerak dan menelan para pelancong. Ini adalah semacam memaksa mereka menuju Kurtz. Tanah tersebut digunakan untuk memberontak oleh wisatawan mencari Kurtz.

Seluruh suasana di Kongo adalah salah satu materialisme seseram yang dapat dilihat dalam kutipan di bawah ini:

“The word ivory rang in the ear, was whispered, was sighed. You would think they were praying to it. A taint of imbecile rapacity blew through it all, like a whiff from some corpse.” (Conrad, 2002:p.40)

a.         Kekejaman Imperialisme

Hal ini ditunjukkan dalam novel bahwa imperialisme tidak pernah peduli terhadap perasaan orang lain. Cahaya yang muncul untuk mencerahkan adalah ilusi. Imperialisme, keserakahan, kekejaman, dan penganiayaan terhadap manusia terjadi sepanjang waktu dalam kehidupan pribumi.

Ketika Marlow mendarat di stasiun pertama, ia dikejutkan oleh penampilan khas daerah, Ini adalah adegan 'kehancuran hunian'. Mesin-mesin yang dibawa dari Eropa untuk 'kemajuan' terlihat aneh  semua dan berada di lingkungan yang asing. Marlow datang di sebuah truk kereta api berukuran telentang memanjang:

“The thing looked as dead as the carcass of some animal.” (Conrad, 2002: p. 30)

Sebuah kubangan boiler tanpa tujuan di rumput, setumpuk rel adalah mengumpulkan karat, banyak drai pipa nage jatuh, bagian mesin membusuk tersebar di seluruh tempat. Marlow mengatakan bahwa seluruh proyek adalah nakal yang menghancurkan. Membosankan dan kehancuran berat mengguncang tanah yang menunjukkan upaya untuk ledakan batu, namun ledakan itu lemah dan tidak efektif. Tidak ada perubahan yang muncul pada wajah batu.
Musriadi 8

“They were building a railway. The cliff was not in the way or anything; but this objectless blasting was all the work going on.” (Conrad, 2002: p.30)

Perasaan ini menunjukkan kegilaan orang Eropa. Mereka menjadi tuan yang kejam dan tidak peduli tentang kondisi tanah asli dan Afrika.

Di stasiun yang sama, Marlow mengalami pandangan lain yang lebih mengerikan dan tajam. Marlow mengatakan bahwa ia berjalan ke dalam lingkaran suram, beberapa inferno yang sekarat dan negro ditinggalkan. Ini negro dikumpulkan dari bagian yang berbeda dari negara untuk membuat stasiun huni untuk orang kulit putih. Mereka dipaksa untuk melakukan pekerjaan yang tidak asing bagi mereka. Mereka tidak punya cara untuk melarikan diri tetapi tetap bekerja. Orang-orang Eropa mengekstrak tenaga kerja maksimum dan membayar mereka tiga sembilan inci sepanjang kuningan kawat dalam seminggu, yang tidak cukup untuk mereka untuk apa-apa. Selain itu, makanan yang tidak biasa dan iklim buruk. Sebagian besar dari mereka berubah menjadi bangkai manusia. Tidak ada perawatan medis diberikan kepada mereka dan mereka diizinkan perlahan binasa dan menyakitkan.

“They were dying slowly-it was clear. They were not enemies, they were not criminals, they were nothing earthly now-nothing but black shadows of disease and starvation, lying confusedly in the greenish gloom. Brought from all the recesses of the coast, in all the legality of time and contracts, lost in uncongenial surroundings, fed on unfamiliar food, they sickened because of insufficient food and were then allowed to crawl and rest.” (Conrad, 2002: p.32)

     Ini adalah contoh yang menceritakan pemborosan manusia yang sangat besar dan penderitaan manusia yang diderita penduduk asli Afrika oleh Master Eropa. Satu sisi dengan rasa kasih sayang yang mendalam untuk kesakitan orang negro. Simpati Conrad, dimediasi melalui pemikiran dan tindakan dari Marlow, mengamankan posisinya secara permanen sebagai humanis. Marlow menyebarkan penduduk asli dengan menarik peluit kapal untuk menjaga mereka dari bahaya.

     Marlow memenuhi general manager, seorang pedagang putih yang khas, yang hanya peduli dengan keuntungan materi. Dia adalah seorang pria yang kuat. Manajer digunakan untuk menyatakan pandangan bahwa orang-orang yang dekat dengannya datang ke Kongo seharusnya tidak memiliki perut.

“Men who come out here should have no entrails.” (Conrad, 2002: p.39}

     Dia menambahkan bahwa mereka seharusnya tidak memiliki hati nurani untuk Eropa yang tidak menunjukkan tanda yang membingukan pada tontonan penderitaan manusia.

     Untuk Marlow, semua pengalaman imperialis menjadi salah satu pengalaman. Eksploitasi manusia yang imperialisme di Afrika mensyaratkan dan mengingatkan dia tentang penaklukan Inggris oleh Romawi, berlayar dari cahaya Inggris ke kegelapan
Musriadi 9

laut, kembali dengan 'panggul bulat' kapal mereka menggelembung harta. Keserakahan dan kekejaman yang sama untuk daya dan berada di akar penaklukan tersebut dan penerapan ditandai kekuatan keberutalan mereka juga:

“They were conquerors and for that you want only brute force-nothing to boast of, when you have it, since your strength is just an accident arising from the weakness of others. They grabbed what they could get for the sake of what was to be got. It was just robbery with violence, aggravated murder on a great scale, and men going at it blind – as is very proper for those who tackle a darkness.” (Conrad, 2002: p. 190)

     Conrad benar menunjukkan bahwa civilisers tidak lebih baik daripada perampokan rasialis keluar untuk mencabut martabat penduduk asli dan harta mereka karena mereka memiliki (Conrad, 2002.: P 29) "kulit yang berbeda atau sedikit hidung datar dari mereka sendiri." Conrad langsung mengutuk kerakusan orang-orang Eropa di Afrika sebagai perebut yang hina atau harta yang pernah menodai sejarah hati nurani manusia dan eksplorasi geografis.

KESIMPULAN

Setelah menganalisa imperialisme dalam novel "Heart of Darkness" oleh Joseph Conrad, Beberapa kesimpulan dapat sampaikan. Mereka mengikuti sebagai berikuta:

1.  Imperialisme adalah urusan egois keserakahan didorong oleh keinginan jijik laki-laki.

2. The Inefisiensi, kekejaman, dan pembusukan moral adalah kejahatan yang muncul dalam kekurangan imperialisme.

3.   Imperialisme menciptakan kejahatan lebih dari baik.

4.  Kekejaman putih terhadap penduduk asli seperti yang digambarkan dalam Kongo adalah semata-mata karena besar putih untuk mengekstrak kekayaan dari Kongo.

5.  Gading merupakan hal yang paling berharga atau putih di Kongo dan akar dari eksplorasi mereka ke benua gelap serta akar kekejaman mereka.

SARAN

Disarankan agar para pembaca tidak mengikuti tindakan imperialis dan pemerintah Indonesia tidak bekerja sama dengan negara-negara imperialis, dan juga terhadap praktek-praktek imperialism mereka.




Musriadi 10

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Conrad, Joseph. 2002. ‘Heart of darkness’. Delhi: Efficient offset printers.
Friedman, Norman. 1989. ‘Recent short story theories problem in definition’. In Short Story Theory at a Crossroads. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
Graver, Lawrence. 1969. Conrad’s Short Fiction. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Hornby, A.S. 1974. Oxford Advanced learner’s Dictionary of Current English. London: Oxford University Press.
Lucas, Michael. Conrad’s Adjectival Eccentricity. Style 25 (1991), 130-9.
Najder, Zdzislaw. 1983. Joseph Conrad : A Chronicle. Cambridge: Cambridge university Press
Watts, Ian. 1980. Conrad in the nineteenth Century. London: Chatto & Windus.
Watt, Cedric. 1989. Joseph Conrad: A Literary life. London: Macmillan.
Welek, Rene and Austin Warren. 1977. Theory of literature. New York: Hartcourt Brance Javanovish.










Jumat, 07 Juni 2013

39 Kata Kata Mutiara Bahasa Inggris dan Artinya ~ Cara Mudah Belajar Bahasa Inggris

39 Kata Kata Mutiara Bahasa Inggris dan Artinya ~ Cara Mudah Belajar Bahasa Inggris
Journal of Faculty of Letters and Humanities
2004 no.190
Developmental Stages of Child language
Dr. Massoud Rahimpour


Summary:




This Journal analyzed the various categorizations proposed for the early stages of syntactic development in L1 and also discusses the characteristics of early childhood syntax in first language acquisition. Developmental psycholinguistics, child language studies, have attempted to answer key questions such as: "How do children learn her / his language so well in a short time?" and "What learning a language course?", (Kess, 1993: 301). It is said that all humans acquire language, but there are many languages in the world, and it seems that every human being is capable of learning all of this as a native language with equal ease (Stork and Widdowson, 1974:131).
Two important skills in explaining the development of language in children are:
Skills receptive and expressive skills.
• Receptive and Expressive Language Skills
Receptive skills begins at birth when a new baby is born immediately exposed to all kinds of sounds. In the first infant cannot distinguish between sounds, but after about six to eight weeks, he / she is able to recognize the difference between human voice and other sounds. This sound is usually / her mother's voice and the baby may indicate recognition by facial expressions such as smiling. With nine months he / she starts responding to a few simple words: very often the names of toys or stuffed bear. At this time he / she can respond to the motion or movement. By twelve months babies usually able to respond to commands (Stork and Widdowson, 1974)
expressive language skills was the beginning of active participation in speech and language. At this stage the baby can respond to vocal for pain, such as hunger, pleasure and satisfaction, but this is just a reflex. Speech development was initiated when the baby will be able to produce sound by conscious effort. This sounds kind of production is called Babbling which began towards the end of the third month of life. Children typically produce syllables consisting of a consonant plus a vowel is often called reduplication stage. Children will begin to use / first words in about twelve months. Forms such as mama or dada, which occurs very early during the stage of reduplication, is not considered as words. Reduplicating syllables composed of consonants bilabial or alveolar and low front vowel is used in many languages as the name of the child to the parents. about eighteen, at this stage of his / her communication with others is limited single word utterance called Holophrastic language.
• Summarizing the milestones of language development
Greeting words can be used in the context of children that will contain different grammatical constructions in the adult language. For example, according to the context and purpose of the speaker single word phrase "teddy" could mean: I want my teddy, Here is my doll, teddy which I or my dolls halo.
• The process of giving and receiving (taken from Brown & bellugi, 1964).
A young boy who has lost his / her mother may cry "mama" which means "I want mama". Or children may show shoes and says "mama" which means "belonging Shoe mama" Research has shown that young children express various semantic functions with one word. In such cases, the child uses one word to express a thought that adults usually use full sentences.
• Early Syntax
The grammar of child’s sentence seems to be a tough nut kid crack. But what is surprising is that the child takes place and continues to produce sentences that are becoming more and more complex, in their grammar, without much difficulty. At age 4, most children acquiring English have mastered the important words in English syntax. Of course, they have not finished acquiring English, and more complex structures take them longer to obtain. But at the age of 4, or soon after, many children can handle passive constructions like "Daddy stopped by police" and quite complex questions like What are you doing that?
• Language motherese:
In the early stages of development directly depends on the setting, both physical and physical. Caretaker speech is the language used by adults to children, and has become an important source of evidence to understand early language development (Snow & Ferguson, 1977). One characteristic of caretaker speech is the use of language 'Here-and-Now (Krashen, 1985). Language addressed to children is restricted to references to objects that are in close discourse context, and which is strongly supported by the context. and such is easier to do than the previous reference context supported tasks (There-and-Then). The fact, the children talk about what they see and context. The fact that the children talk about what they saw and did allow caregivers to understand many other sayings shall uninterruptable
• Cognitive Development
This suggests that language is one of the many activities that all depends on the analytic cognitive development. Language acquisition is seen as having a certain cognitive prerequisites or co-requisites. And also suggests that ongoing conceptual development of grammatical and determine the order of acquisition of some grammatical forms. In short, there is no definitive answer on how language development takes place but we were able to investigate through the application of various theories of linguistics and psycholinguistics some complexity child language development.

Minggu, 02 Juni 2013

gay and lesbian author

1. JAMES BALDWIN
James Baldwin adalah seorang penulis Amerika yang banyak menulis tentang identitas seksual dan personal, serta perjuangan hak sipil di Amerika Serikat.
Riwayat hidup
Nama lengkapnya adalah James Arthur Baldwin. Ia lahir pada 2 Agustus 1924 di RS Harlem, New York dari Emma Berdis Jones dan ia tak pernah tahu mengenai ayahnya sendiri. Pada tahun 1927, ibunya menikah dengan David Baldwin, seorang buruh dan pendeta, hingga bersama-sama memiliki delapan orang anak.[1] Pada usia 17 tahun, Baldwin meninggalkan rumah dan setelah menyelesaikan pendidikan SMA dia mulai bekerja di bidang sastra.
Pada tahun 1948, karyanya yang berjudul The New Leader, The Nation, Commentary, and Partisan Review berhasil memenangkan Rosenwald Fellowship. Salah satu novelnya yang terkenal, berjudul Kamar Giovanni (Giovanni's Room) bercerita tentang penderitaan seorang lelaki karena homoseksualitas yang dialaminya.Pada tanggal 30 November 1987, Baldwin meninggal di Perancis karena menderita kanker perut.
Karya-karyanya
Masalah identitas seksual, bunuh diri seorang teman, dan rasisme mengantarnya pada 1948 ke Paris dan London. Berbekal dua catatan Bessie Smith dan mesin tik, Baldwin menyelesaikan novel yang berjudul “Go Tell It on the Mountain”. Novel ini berdasarkan pada pengalaman penulis pada pendeta remaja di sebuah gereja kecil yang memberikan perlakuan buruk pada salah satu anggota jemaatnya. Di mana ia menyadari bahwa orang desa dan orang asing di dunia manapun tidak bisa memiliki kekuasaan.
Karya keduanya adalah “Giovanni’s Room” diselesaikannya pada tahun 1956. Tema dalam novel ini adalah perjuangan seorang laki-laki dengan homoseksualitasnya. Buku ini menjadi bestseller karena ia menggambarkan kekerasan yang dilakukan orang kulit putih terhadap orang kulit hitam di Amerika. Berdasarkan hal ini ia pun menulis esai yang berjudul “Dalam esai judul “Catatan Orang Buras” (1955) yang ia ambil contoh keluarganya sendiri dalam kerusuhan Harlem tahun 1943 untuk menggambarkan pengalaman orang berkulit hitam di Amerika yang mengalami mengakui kekerasan dan ketidakadilan rasial.
2. HERMAN JOACHIM BANG
Herman Joachim Bang (20 April 1857 – 29 January 1912) was a Danish author,one of the men of the Modern Breakthrough
Biography
Bang was born into a noble family of Asserballe, on the small Danish island of Als, the son of a South Jutlandic vicar (a relative of N. F. S. Grundtvig). His family history was marked by insanity and disease.
When he was twenty he published two volumes of critical essays on the realistic movement. In 1880 he published his novel Haabløse Slægter (Families Without Hope), which aroused immediate attention. The main character was a young man who had a relationship with an older woman. The book was considered obscene at the time and was banned. After some time spent in travel and a successful lecture tour of Norway and Sweden, he settled in Copenhagen and produced a series of novels and collections of short stories which placed him in the front rank of Scandinavian novelists. Among his more famous stories are Fædra (1883) and Tine (Tina, 1889).
The latter won for its author the friendship of Henrik Ibsen and the enthusiastic admiration of Jonas Lie. Among his other works are Det hvide Hus (The White House, 1898), Excentriske Noveller (Eccentric Stories, 1885), Stille Eksistenser (Quiet Existences, 1886), Liv og Død (Life and Death, 1899), Englen Michael (The Angel Michael, 1902), a volume of poems (1889), and recollections, Ti Aar (Ten Years, 1891).[1]
Bang was homosexual, a fact which contributed to his isolation in the cultural life of Denmark and made him the victim of smear campaigns. He lived most of his life with his sister but found happiness for a few years with the German actor Max Eisfeld (1863–1935), with whom he lived in Prague in 1885-86. Uninterested in politics, he was distant from most of his colleagues in the naturalist movement.
Failed as an actor, Bang earned fame as a theatre producer in Paris and in Copenhagen. He was a very productive journalist, writing for Danish, Nordic and German newspapers, developing modern reporting. His article on the fire at Christiansborg Palace is a landmark in Danish journalism.
Bang is primarily concerned with the "quiet existences", the disregarded and ignored people living boring and apparently unimportant lives. He is especially interested in describing lonely or isolated women. Ved Vejen (Katinka 1886) describes the secret and never fulfilled passion of a young wife of a stationmaster, living in a barren marriage. Tine (1889), which has the war with Prussia in 1864 (the Second War of Schleswig) as background, tells the tragic love story of a young girl on the island of Als. Stuk (Stucco, 1887) tells the story of a young man's love affair that is fading away without any real explanation, against the background of the "Gründerzeit" of Copenhagen and its superficial modernization and economic speculation. In Ludvigsbakke (1896) a young nurse squanders her love on a spineless childhood friend, who eventually deserts her in order to save his estate by marrying a rich heiress.
Some of his books, including Tina and Katinka (English titles), have been translated into many languages and filmed. One film adaptation was Bang's novel Mikaël (1904), which was adapted into a film Michael (1924) by Carl Theodor Dreyer.
Bang's works earned him renown as a leading European impressionist writer. Bang's last years were embittered by persecutions and declining health. He traveled widely in Europe, and during a lecture tour of the United States he was taken ill on the train and died in Ogden, Utah.

3. NATALIE CLIFFORD BARNEY
Natalie Clifford Barney (October 31, 1876 – February 2, 1972) was an American playwright, poet and novelist who lived as an expatriate in Paris.
Barney's salon was held at her home on Paris' Left Bank for more than 60 years and brought together writers and artists from around the world, including many leading figures in French literature along with American and British Modernists of the Lost Generation. She worked to promote writing by women and formed a "Women's Academy" (L'Académie des Femmes) in response to the all-male French Academy while also giving support and inspiration to male writers from Remy de Gourmont to Truman Capote.
She was openly lesbian and began publishing love poems to women under her own name as early as 1900, considering scandal as "the best way of getting rid of nuisances" (meaning heterosexual attention from young males). In her writings she supported feminism and pacifism. She opposed monogamy and had many overlapping long and short-term relationships, including on-and-off romances with poet Renée Vivien and dancer Armen Ohanian and a 50-year relationship with painter Romaine Brooks. Her life and love affairs served as inspiration for many novels, ranging from the salacious French bestseller Sapphic Idyll to The Well of Loneliness, arguably the most famous lesbian novel of the 20th century
4. JAMES ROBERT BAKER
James Robert Baker (October 18, 1946 – November 5, 1997) was an American author of sharply satirical, predominantly gay-themed transgressional fiction. A native Californian, his work is set almost entirely in Southern California. After graduating from UCLA, he began his career as a screenwriter, but became disillusioned and started writing novels instead. Though he garnered fame for his books Fuel-Injected Dreams and Boy Wonder, after the controversy surrounding publication of his novel, Tim and Pete, he faced increasing difficulty having his work published. According to his life partner, this was a contributing factor in his suicide.
Baker's work has achieved cult status in the years since his death, and two additional novels have been posthumously published. First-edition copies of his earlier works have become collector's items. His novel Testosterone was adapted to a film of the same name, though it was not a financial success. Two other books have been optioned for films, but they have not been produced.
Baker was born in Long Beach, California and raised in what he considered a "stifling, Republican Southern Californian household". Rebelling against his parents, he became attracted to the fringe elements of society, including beatniks (anyone living as a bohemian, acting rebelliously, or appearing to advocate a revolution in manners), artists and gays. In high school during the 1960s he explored his sexuality at underground gay teen nightclubs, while living in fear that his abusive father would find out. At one point, his father hired a private detective to follow him, when he suspected Baker was having an affair with a male neighbor. This family dynamic would be used in many of his novels, most extensively in Boy Wonder.
Baker began experimenting with drugs, and became, in his own words, "an out of control, teenage speed freak". He also began drinking heavily, attributing it to the fact that he was closeted. However, even after coming out, his substance abuse remained excessive and "still had a life of its own". After sobering up, he attended UCLA film school, where he was one of the winners of the Samuel Goldwyn Writing Awards,[4] and directed two films: Mouse Klub Konfidential and Blonde Death. Mouse Klub Konfidential, a film about a Mickey Mouse Club Mouseketeer who becomes a gay bondage pornographer, was a controversial entry in the 1976 San Francisco's LGBT Film Festival, as some thought Baker was actually advocating Nazism. It is also credited with having caused Michael Medved to abandon his dream of film making and instead become a film critic
MABEL MANEY is an artist and author from San Francisco, California known for her lesbian pulp fiction. She is the author of the Nancy Clue series, a lesbian parody of the Nancy Drew, Cherry Ames, and Hardy Boys series. More recently, she is the author of the "Jane Bond" novels, a series of parodies of James Bond. Mabel's short fiction can also be found the humor anthology "May Contain Nuts".
Maney is famous for the quote "For a long time I thought I wanted to be a nun. Then I realized that what I really wanted to be was a lesbian."
Mabel was born in New Jersey. Her family moved to the midwest where she was educated and permanently scarred by dour nuns. She was one of five children in an Irish Catholic family in Appleton, Wisconsin where she worked in her family's paper hat factory. She graduated from Ohio State University with a Bachelor's degree in Journalism and received a Master of Fine Arts degree from San Francisco State University. Her MFA thesis explored the subtext of novels featuring 1940s heroine Nurse Cherry Ames

SARAH ALDRIDGE
Sarah Aldridge adalah nama pena dari Anyda Marchant (lahir 27 Januari 1911, Rio de Janeiro - meninggal 11 Januari 2006), yang merupakan mitra pendiri untuk Naiad Tekan 1973 dan A & M Books pada tahun 1995, dan penulis terutama lesbian fiksi populer .
Awal kehidupan dan karier
Marchant adalah putri Langworthy dan Maude Marchant, dan pindah dengan keluarganya ke Washington, DC pada usia enam.
Setelah mendapatkan gelar sarjana, diikuti pada tahun 1933 oleh gelar sarjana hukum dari National University of Washington, DC (sekarang Universitas George Washington ), ia mengaku berlatih di Virginia dan Washington DC, dan sebelum Pengadilan AS Klaim dan Agung AS Pengadilan .
Salah satu wanita pertama yang lulus bar di Washington DC, [1] dia menjabat Bank Dunia sebagai seorang pengacara di Departemen Hukum selama 18 tahun sampai pensiun pada tahun 1972.
Saat Sarah Aldridge, dia adalah penulis dari banyak karya sastra. Karya pertama kali diterbitkan adalah cerita pendek yang diterbitkan oleh The Ladder , [2] yang berkala dirilis oleh Putri Bilitis . Empat belas novel lesbian dia menulis termasuk Semua Pecinta Sejati, Tottie, A Flight of Angels, The Latecomer, dan The Nesting Place.
Dia bertemu hukum sekretaris Muriel Inez Crawford [3] pada tahun 1947. Pasangan ini bersama-sama selama 57 tahun sampai kematiannya Aldridge.
Aldridge meninggal di rumahnya di Pantai Rehoboth, Delaware pada 11 Januari 2006. Dia adalah 94. [4] Dia dianugerahi Golden Crown Masyarakat Sastra Trailblazer Penghargaan anumerta pada bulan Juni 2007.
Novel pertamanya Latecomer ini diterbitkan kembali pada tahun 2009 dalam edisi ulang tahun ke-35 oleh A & M Books . Selain novel, Editor Fay Jacobs mengumpulkan esai [5] dari array yang luas dari ikon lesbian membuktikan dampak abadi Aldridge sebagai pelopor penulisan lesbian awal. Volume ini menjadi yang pertama dari karyanya muncul dalam format digital pada tahun 2009 .